New Religions Essay Example for Free

New Religions Essay Present essay studies how new religions are born in the context of social, cultural and intellectual relations between people. The analysis addresses the origins of three Abrahamic religions: Christianity, Judaism and Islam to trace their origins, historical and social needs that drove their development and intrinsic ties with their predecessors. The thesis is defended that the birth of religions should not be regarded as merely divine providence, intellectual development, but should be understood through the prism of socio-political developments in a given society. The origins of Christianity Christianity was not born as fully autonomous religion, but in contrast was under a great influence of Judaism (Brown, 963). This influence relates to the same canonical religious texts, including Old Testament, monotheism etc. Hence, Christianity was born simultaneously as a follower and opponent to Judaism. There is no denying the importance of the fact that social roots of Christianity should be traced in Jewish revolutionary movement against Judaist aristocracy, living in wealth and oppressing lower classes and Roman dominance, which was particularly aggressive. In its intellectual roots Early Christianity focused on critique of material goods, which is reflected in its celebration of soul, love and salvation. Such ideology was particularly successful amongst ordinary people, who saw Christianity as the source of their liberation (Bruce, 235). However, notwithstanding these social roots, Christian religion was for a long time persecuted in Judea and Roman empire in general. It did not function as state religion until AD 325 when the First Council of Nicaea took place and Constantine the Great made his historical decision. Until that time Christianity functioned within different sects, which focused on often contradictory interpretations of Bible, Greek philosophy, Gnosticism, Judaism etc (Grant, 45). Therefore, establishing Christianity as a full-fledged religion required its ascendance in the role of state religion and codification of its canonical legacy. The task was realized by St. Paul, who transformed the earlier premises of Christianity and made them affordable to interpretation by state power. Various Christian Councils later codified Christian texts and interpreted them to create unified traditions. Other interpretations of Christianity were persecuted by official Christianity, which marked the final stage in its transformation into full-fledged religion. Judaism The historical roots of Judaism should be traced back in the social need of Judea state to legitimize and develop its national autonomy in the ancient world (Shaye and Cohen, 36-39). The proof of the latter thought may be found in Tanakh (Old Testament), a canonical text of Judean tradition. Old Testament presents a Jewish nation (Childern of Israel) in their direct relationship with God, who proclaimed them the chosen nation. The latter shows that Judaism was central for Judea in positioning itself as the most progressive state in the Middle Eastern region. The historical origins of Judaism should also be traced in the need of regulating social relations in Judean society. This is the most evident in commandments or Law of Moses, which includes 613 laws, regulating various spheres of life in society. Hence, there is no denying the importance of the fact that Judaism was a very important ethical, legislative and moral tool in ancient Jewish society. Its main principles were later included in Talmud, which became the prototype of religious legislative system in general. Notwithstanding the fact that Judaism was the first monotheistic religion it was influenced by some ancient religions such as Zoroastrianism, from which Judaism borrowed certain cult practices, monotheistic ideas and philosophical mindset (Shaye and Cohen, 295). The ties of Judaism are also evident with Christianity and Islam, which form the group of common Abrahamic religions. Islam Islam has its historical roots both in Judaism and Christianity. As it is widely known, Islam uses Christian tradition of preaching Jesus; however, unlike Christianity in Muslim tradition, Jesus is regarded as a mortal person (Esposito, 23). Muhammad, the final prophet of God is regarded as a great reformer, who restored the original monotheistic tradition of Moses, Jesus and Abraham, which arguably was distorted in Christianity and Judaism. Therefore, it may be said that Islam is based on permanent reference to Judaism and Christianity, as the sources of its own development. The birth of Islam was also fostered by the ethical, intellectual and moral needs of Arab societies. Quran may be compared to Torah in this respect, because it served as the main tool for regulating social relations in Muslim societies. Its main commandments were included in Shariat law, which reflects Muslim tradition of correspondence between law and religious norms. Moreover, it should be noted that Islam was born and developed in the period of the rapid ascendance of Arab civilization as the center of power and development in Asia (Esposito, 68). Arab conquests and interrelations with the West were premised on the construction of the national and religious identity, which was found in Islam. Islam served as the tool for contrasting Muslim world with Western and allowed unifying various Muslim nations in the single task of promoting the cause of Mohammad. To sum it up, we have discussed major historical, social, cultural and ethical causes, which influenced the birth of three Abrahamic religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The analysis shows that their birth and development should be understood as the complex process, affected not only by intellectual development, but deeper social and political processes, including revolutionary movement, the inception of new nationalist states, the relations between different civilizations etc. Bibliography Brown R. E. 1994. The Death of the Messiah: From Gethsemane to the Grave. New York: Doubleday, Anchor Bible Reference Library. Bruce F. F. , 1988. The Canon of Scripture. Intervarsity Press. Esposito, John. 2003. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press Grant, M. 1977. Jesus: An Historians Review of the Gospels. New York: Scribners. Shaye, J. D. and Cohen. 1999. The Beginnings of Jewishness: Boundaries, Varieties, Uncertainties, Berkeley: University of California Press.

Existing Global Institutions and their problems :: Essays Papers

Existing Global Institutions and their problems In an increasingly connected and interdependent world, global institutions play an important role in promoting stability and guiding developing countries towards becoming market economies. This process and the importance of this role was never more clear than during the 1990s. In Eastern Europe, a host of new countries appeared on the world map franticly began running towards capitalism and prosperity. The premier international institution, the International Monetary Fund, was given the difficult task of crediting emerging economies and providing the western know-how to build strong market economies. Alas, in many cases, it failed. Possibly, the most tragic example was that of Russia. Some argue that the fund had modest desings and was fundamentally uncapable of this great project. This essay will explore why the fund failed, how its decisions were made, and what must be done in an ideal institution that would be able to accomplish the task. Currently, or over the last decade, the fund was in a peculiar situation. It essentially gave loans to countries that were politically important to the west, such as Russia and Brazil, repeatedly bailing them out of crises which their poor policies led it to. The fund also prescribed certain reforms and policies that should improve the economy over the long tuerm. Unfortunately, these recommendations were all too often either incorrect, as in Asia, or were ignored altogether, as in Russia. The reason is the simple moral hazard. There was no real reason to comply and change inside, when a state knew that they will be given the loan anyway, for the west had political reasons such as the fear that the country will renounce democracy and the like. It is important to refute the illusion early on that the IMF was truly international or independent body. It was, and is massively underfunded ant the result is that its directors have to ask the US treasury department for funds, giving the bosses of the treasury such as Robert Rubin and Larry Summers immense influence over the fund's policies. Therefore, while the fund essentially promoted policies of the American government, or the "Washington concensus", it was often used as a scapegoat. Whenever something was wrong, such as a crisis precipitating due to poor and not peer-accepted recommendations, as was the case in Asia in 1998, few blamed the department of the Treasury of the Clinton administration. Problems were attributed to the fund, which is labeled as international, and to such mysterious and ill-understood phenomena such as globalization.

Liver cancer or ‘hepatocellular carcinoma’

Liver cancer or ‘hepatocellular carcinoma’ (or malignant hepatoma) is a malignant tumor that develops from the cells of the liver.   The tumor may develop from liver as the primary site, or from spread from other sites in the body (secondary cancer).   Primary cancer of the liver less frequently occurs compared to secondary cancer.   So far, in the year 2007, about 19, 000 new cases of liver cancer (both primary and secondary cancers) have developed in the year, and about 16, 800 patients have died from the disorder (NCI, 2007).   The type of treatment utilized and the outcome of the disorder depend on several factors including staging and spread of the cancer and the general health of the patient (and also other patient factors).If the disorder is detected and treated in the early stages, the outcome is usually better.   Some of the treatment methods recommended for liver cancer include surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, liver transplantation, etc.   As th e current treatment available is rather ineffective in treating liver cancers, it is necessary that newer modalities be developed to treat the condition that would be both safe and effective.   Some of the newer therapies that are being researched for liver cancers include chemotherapy, chemoembolization, immunotherapy and radiofrequency ablation (NCI, 2002).Chemoembolization is a procedure characterized by mechanically or surgically obstructing the blood supply to the liver and then administering chemotherapeutic agents into the cancerous site so as to destroy them.   As the level of chemotherapeutic agents is high at the site, they are more capable of destroying the tumor.   Besides, the risk of side-effects are less, as the chances of the drug spreading in the blood is minimal.   Chemoembolization is usually performed to treat liver cancers that cannot be treated by surgery.   However, those patients in whom the liver cancer was advanced, spread to other sites of the bo dy, or developed associated renal failure, were excluded from the study.   Out of 908 patients who were initially identified, 112 matched the criteria and were a part of the study.   The drug frequently utilized is doxorubicin.The initial results that were obtained through the study were promising.   At present, no option is currently available to treat liver cancer.   Liver transplantation may have a few limitations.   Previously arterial embolization was utilized to treat liver cancer, but the survival rates in such cases could not be determined.   In this trial, the 112 patients were divided into 3 groups, and one received arterial emobolization only, the other received chemoembolization (arterial embolization and chemotherapy) and the third received conservative treatment.   The results obtained through chemoembolization were amazing.   21 out of the 40 patients treated by this method died (survival rate was 47.5 %).On the other hand, 25 out of the 35 patients tr eated through conservative methods died (survival rate 29 %) and 25 out of 37 (survival rate 32.5 %) died from receiving treatment through arterial embolization.   However, the complete or long-term results could not be obtained through this trial, as the initial results demonstrated that chemoembolization results were very beneficial.   The one-year survival rate for chemoembolization was about 82 % and the two year survival rate was about 63 %.   The one-year survival rate for arterial embolization was 75 % and two-year survival rate was 50 %.   The one year survival rate for conservative treatment was 63 % and the two year survival rate was 27 % (NCI, 2002).Radiofrequency ablation is frequently utilized to treat liver cancers that cannot be treated by surgery or other methods.   In this technique, a specialized probe that emits certain waves, and generates heat in the tissues is utilized.   The probe generates heat, and the cancerous cells are destroyed.   This proc edure is usually conducted under anesthesia (NCI, 2002).Pancreas cancer or ‘islet-cell cancer’ is a malignant tumor that develops from the cells of the pancreas.   It is a rare form of cancer, and in the US, in 2007, about 37, 000 new cases of pancreas cancer has developed and about 33, 370 individuals died from the disorder (NCI, 2002).   Pancreatic cancer may be difficult to be diagnosed early and treated problem, as the pancreas is a tiny internal organ and usually the condition does not produce any signs or symptoms.   Presently, surgery, radiotherapy and chemotherapy are utilized to treat pancreatic cancer.   Immunotherapy is still undergoing research for its effectiveness and safety in treating pancreatic cancer.A clinical trial was performed to determine the effectiveness of treating pancreas cancer with gemcitabine and chemoradiation.   The effectiveness of 5-fluroracil (an chemotherapeutic agent) and radiotherapy was compared to gemcitabine, along wit h 5-fluroracil and radiotherapy.   One out of every five pancreatic tumors can be treated by surgery.   Besides, the outcome following surgery for pancreatic cancers is very poor. The tumor can recur, thus reducing the survival rates.   Presently, in the US, chemoradiation is frequently utilized along with surgery in treating pancreatic cancers.   5-Flurouracil is frequently utilized in the chemoradiation.   As the chances of recurrences are still high with this modality, researchers have suggesting a clinical trial in which an additional chemotherapeutic agent is utilized along with the standard therapy.Gemcitabine was the drug selected to be utilized along with 5-flurouracil and radiotherapy, following surgery.   The main aim of the study was to demonstrate an improved outcome or a better survival rate following use of this combination in treating pancreas cancer.   About 442 individuals were selected for this trial and were divided into 2 groups.   The individuals of both groups had undergo surgery to remove the tumor and had to also undergo chemoradiation later.   In the first group, gemcitabine was administered before and after the chemoradiation, whereas in the second group, 5-Flurouracil was administered before and after the surgery.   Tumors that developed from the head and the tail of the pancreas were included in the study.   Gemcitabine used to treat pancreatic head tumors along with chemoradiation was had a survival period of about20.6 months.On the other hand, about 16.9 months was the survival period of those who received 5-Flurouracil.   The there year survival rate in those who received gemcitabine was about 32 %, and the three year survival rate in those who received 5-Flurouracil was about 21 %.   However, the risk of side-effects was higher in individuals who received gemcitabine.   These cells tended to destroy the blood cells.   Supportive drugs seemed to be more beneficial in treating gemcitabine-induced depr ession in the blood cell counts.   The study demonstrated that gemcitabine was more effective in treating tumors arising from the head of the pancreas after surgery, than 5-Flurouracil (NCI, 2006).Another study was conducted to determine the beneficial effects of gemcitabine along surgery, and surgery alone.   The study population (consisting of 368 individuals) was divided into two groups, the first group was administered gemcitabine following surgery, and the second group was treated with surgery alone.   The study demonstrated that recurrence rates of the tumor treated with gemcitabine and surgery was much better than those treated by surgery itself.   Recurrence occurred after 13.4 months in those treated with gemcitabine and after 6.9 months in those treated with surgery alone (NCI, 2007).References:National Cancer Institute (2002), Liver Cancer – Introduction. Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/publications/patient-education/w yntk-liver-cancerNational Cancer Institute (2005), Islet cell cancer, Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/National Cancer Institute (2005), Pancreatic Cancer, Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/types/pancreaticNational Cancer Institute (2007), Liver Cancer Home Page. Retrieved on April 14, 2006, from NCI Web site: https://www.cancer.gov/types/liver

Social Learning Theory On Behavior Essay - 918 Words

Social Learning Theory is a perspective from psychology that was developed to understand the importance of observations and direct instructions that influence gender identity. Professor Susan Golombok at the University of Cambridge and psychology professor Robyn Fivush at Emory College of Art and Science defined Social Learning Theory as a way to study behaviors through differential reinforcement and modeling (Golombok and Fivush, 76). For decades, children were taught to follow specific standards when it comes to gender identity. Girls were encouraged to play with dolls while boys were reinforced to play with cars. Also, children observe adults such as their parents to comprehend and imitate behaviors; consequently, this creates gender stereotypes through differential reinforcement and modeling. Throughout this paper, readers will understand the influence of Social Learning Theory on behaviors and how differential reinforcement and modeling induce gender stereotype. At a young age, I (Lois Kim) would not have noticed that I observed and imitated my mother’s feminine practices that she displayed. However, there was once a time when I secretly took my mother’s makeup and tried to put it on myself, and my younger brother imitated what I was doing. I tried to imitate my mother by putting on makeup to look â€Å"pretty, while my brother was imitating me out of curiosity as to what I was doing. According to Golombok and Fivush (1994), children do not characteristically select theShow MoreRelatedDeviant Behavior / The Social Learning Theory1751 Words   |  8 Pages 2014 Social Behavior Final Paper – SOC 3380 Sherri Nichols DEVIANT BEHAVIOR, THE SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY, AND SOCIAL REACTION â€Æ' A person would be considered to be acting in a deviant manner within a social setting if they are violating the established social â€Å"norm† within that particular culture. What causes a human being to act in certain ways is a disputed topic among researchers. 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